Weaving Gender Equity - Learning Patterns

The following is a list of research articles and books related to learning patterns:

Anstett, Patricia. (2000). "What Each Gender Finds Easy to Learn." Detroit Free Press, June 6. Available at: http://www.freep.com/news/health/skills6_20000606.htm

In her study of girls' and boys' spatial skills, high school science teacher J. Gail Armstrong-Hall reveals four areas where girls tend to excel and four skills that more commonly develop among boys. The common spatial skills for girls are stationary targeting in cluttered fields; tracking using landmarks; visually aided mental movement of objects; and movement in one direction at a specific distance. Boys' strengths tend to lie in mobile targeting in uncluttered fields; tracking using sense of direction; imagined mental movement of objects; and abstract mental movement in any direction at any distance. Armstrong-Hall contends that these skills are innate, and that the skills typically found among boys are the foundation for higher math and science problem solving.

Boaler, Jo. (1998). "Open and Closed Mathematics: Student Experiences and Understandings." Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, Vol. 29 (No. 1), 41-62.

This study of two schools with alternative teaching approaches (one used traditional textbooks while the other used open-ended activities) shows that the students who learned mathematics in an open, project-based setting displayed more interest in math, became more flexible as mathematical thinkers, found math meaningful, and were more confident. There were also no gender differences in confidence and attitude among students in the project-based school, whereas girls in the more traditional school reported less confidence and enjoyment of math than boys did.

Bohlin, Carol Fry. (1994). "Learning Style Factors and Mathematics Performance: Sex-Related Differences." International Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 21 (No. 4), 387-397.

The major findings from this study of 421 high schools students include: (1) girls reported significantly less interest in technical careers than boys did and less confidence in their mathematical abilities; (2) high scores on the confidence scale were also correlated with high spatial abilities (or a relational learning style) - girls' lower confidence scores may explain their lower Geometry grades; (3) girls reported a greater desire for structure than boys did; (4) girls received higher grades than boys in Algebra I but lower PSAT-M scores; (5) high-structure students (e.g. many girls) often do well on teacher-made tests (where they solve problems like the ones modeled in class), but are at a disadvantage with standardized tests where creative thinking and intellectual risk-taking are required.

Carr, Martha and Donna Jessup. (1997). "Gender Difference in First-Grade Mathematics Strategy Use: Social and Metacognitive Influences." Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 89 (No. 2), 318-328.

This study found that girls were more likely to use overt strategies (counting on fingers or with counters), while boys were more likely to use retrieval (from memory) to solve addition and subtraction problems. In the group sessions all children were more likely to use covert strategies (e.g. mental calculation) and retrieval.

Casey, M. Beth. (1996). "Understanding Individual Differences in Spatial Ability Within Females: A Nature/Nurture Interactionist Framework." Developmental Review, Vol. 16, 241-260.

Researchers in this study demonstrated that girls' mental rotation ability was a product of both their genetic makeup (nature) and their prior spatial experiences (nuture). Mental rotation ability was then linked to SAT-M performance, with higher scores for females being significantly correlated to higher mental rotation ability (no similar correlation was discovered for boys).

Catsambis, Sophia. (1994). "The Path to Math: Gender and Racial-Ethnic Differences in Mathematics Participation from Middle to High School." Sociology of Education, Vol. 67, 199-215.

Results from this study of eighth and tenth grade students show that both White and female students have greater opportunities to learn mathematics than students of color based on enrollment in high-ability classes. Females, especially African American and Latina students, are less likely to pursue math and science careers than their male peers. More Latina and White females report being afraid to ask questions in math class than male students. Tenth grade female students, especially young Latinas, tended to have less confidence than males did in their mathematical ability, with fewer gender differences found among African Amercians. A higher proportion of female students claimed to have taken math courses because they were required to, rather than out of choice; this difference was strongest among Latinos. For male and female African American students limited exposure to learning opportunities and low levels of achievement stood out as the greatest barriers to mathematics participation.

Dillow, Karen, Marilyn Flack, and Francine Peterman. (1994). "Cooperative Learning and the Achievement of Female Students." Middle School Journal, Vol. 26 (No. 2), 48-51.

This article pulls together several studies related to gender and cooperative learning. Current research shows that girls in middle and high school benefit from cooperative learning, particularly when they are paired with other female students. Females in cooperative groups scored higher on achievement tests than those working alone. Another study revealed that females with an internal locus of control (view themselves as influencing outcomes) do better when paired another female during a cooperative task and a male during a competitive task (rather than with a male during a cooperative task and a female during a competitive task).

Dreyden, Julia I. and Shelagh A. Gallager. (1989). "The Effects of Time and Direction Changes on the SAT Performance of Academically Talented Adolescents." Journal for the Education of the Gifted, Vol. 12 (No. 3), 187-204.

Researchers found discrepancies in student performance on the SAT-M test depending on if the test was administered as timed or untimed. All students scored higher on untimed tests versus when they were timed, with females experiencing the largest gain in achievement. While the scores of untimed females were similar to those of untimed males, timed males received much higher scores than timed females. This study suggests that time, not ability, may account for gender differences in SAT-M achievement.

Fennema, Elizabeth and Lindsay A. Tartre. (1985). "The Use of Spatial Visualization in Mathematics by Girls and Boys." Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, Vol. 16 (No. 3), 184-206.

In this analysis of middle school students' spatial visualization skills, researchers found that girls tended to use pictures more than boys did, though they were not as successful as boys in getting correct solutions. Students with a higher level of spatial visualization skills used those skills more often in problem solving than those with a lower level of skill. While being low in spatial visualization did not negatively impact boys' math achievement, it did impair girls' performance.

Fennema, Elizabeth, Thomas Carpenter, Victoria Jacobs, Megan Franke, and Linda Levi. (1998). "A Longitudinal Study of Gender Differences in Young Children's Mathematical Thinking." Educational Researcher, Vol. 27 (No. 5), 6-11.

This study of children's problem solving abilities revealed gender differences in strategy use. Girls (grades 1-3) tended to use modeling or counting strategies (i.e. traditional algorithms), while boys tended to use more abstract strategies such as invented algorithms or derived facts. Boys and girls were equally successful at using invented strategies, and individuals who did chose to use invented algorithms were more successful on extension problems than those who utilized more traditional methods.

Fuchs, L., D. Fuchs, S. Kazdan, K. Karns, M.B. Calhoon, C. Hamlett, and S. Hewlett. (2000). "Effects of Workgroup Structure and Size on Student Productivity during Collaborative Work on Complex Tasks." The Elementary School Journal, Vol. 100 (No. 3), 183-212.

This study analyzed the relationship between workgroup size and structure on third- and fourth-grade students' achievement. Findings show that pairs (vs. small groups) promoted participation, helpfulness, cooperation, and higher quality of discussions for students from all ability levels. Lower-achieving students in particular benefited from dyads through increased participation and collaboration. On the whole lower-achieving students participated less than others in small groups and showed lower-quality procedural and conceptual talk. High-achieving students, on the other hand, worked more productively and effectively, and generated greater cognitive conflict, when paired with other high-achievers.

Garrison, Leslie. (1997). "Making the NCTM Standards Work for Emerging English Speakers." Teaching Children Mathematics, Vol. 4 (No. 3), 132-138.

Given that the NCTM Standards make mathematics instruction more language dependent, new strategies must be employed in the classroom in order to engage students whose first language isn't English. One teacher profiled selects a few in-depth problems rich with mathematical concepts so students can easily learn vocabulary in the context-rich problems. Another teacher asks students to share their problem solving strategies with each other, as those from other countries sometimes utilize procedures different from those used by U.S. students. Other strategies include: using other medium to communicate mathematical concepts, such as with manipulatives, pantomiming, or visual aids; asking students to maintain math journals in their primary language; and allowing students to fill out assessment tasks in their primary language.

Gumperz, John, Jenny Cook-Gumperz, and Margaret Szymanski. (1999). Collaborative Practices in Bilingual Cooperative Learning Classrooms. Washington, DC: Center for Research on Education, Diversity, and Excellence.

This research report looks at the shifting role of the teacher in cooperative learning environment from one of disseminator of information to a more facilitative approach. An underlying question guiding the work is: "What happens when students are left alone to work on classroom tasks?" This question is examined in the context of monolingual and bilingual classrooms.

Hayes, Lorrain & Curtis, Deborah (Spring 2000). "The Impact of a Mathematics Summer Camp Program on Girls' Spatial Visualization Skills and Career Aspirations in Mathematics and Engineering." College of Education Review, Vo1. 1.

Engineering is a male-dominated field with women representing only 17% of engineering graduates. The idea that girls are not considering this career field due to lack of spatial visualization skills and lack of exposure to appropriate female role models led to the development of a summer program to address these issues. A summer camp was formed for sixth and seventh grade girls to increase their spatial visualization skills as well as their interest in pursuing careers in engineering. The program included spatial visualization exercises such as pentomino puzzles, and relevant guest speakers. Pretest and posttest assessments were administered to participating students to determine any significant changes in spatial visualization skills and career interests. In evaluating the program, it was discovered that by the end of the summer there was a significant change in career interest, with more than half of the participants indicating that they would consider engineering as a career choice.

Lubienski, Sarah Theule. (2000). "A Clash of Social Class Cultures? Students' Experiences in a Discussion-Intensive Seventh-Grade Mathematics Classroom." The Elementary School Journal, Vol. 100 (No. 4), 377-403.

This study of a seventh-grade Connected Mathematics Project (CMP - a Standards-based curriculum) classroom highlighted differences in communication styles between lower- and higher-socioeconomic status (SES) students. Lower-SES students expressed discomfort at participating in whole-class discussions unless they were certain they had the correct answer, while their higher-SES peers rarely voiced concerns about being wrong. Higher-SES students saw mathematical discussions as a chance to share their ideas and to be exposed to different ideas from others. Lower-SES students viewed their role in discussions as obtaining or giving right answer; they were less comfortable with debating ideas or reasoning through conflicting explanations. Lower-SES students tended to use "common-sense" reasoning that was closely tied to the context of the problem, while higher-SES individuals extrapolated problems to more abstract and generalized concepts. Lower-SES students also preferred a teacher-directed style in the classroom.

Lubienski, Sarah Theule. (2000) "Problem Solving as a Means Toward Mathematics for All: An Exploratory Look Through a Class Lens." Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, Vol. 31, No. 4, 454-482.

This study of a Connected Mathematics Project (CMP) seventh-grade classroom looked at the socioeconomic status (SES) differences in students' reactions to learning mathematics through problem solving. Results showed that higher-SES preferred CMP to more traditional approaches, while lower-SES students favored the latter. Lower-SES students, particularly girls, favored having the teacher tell them mathematical rules, while their higher-SES peers were comfortable with minimal teacher direction. Lower-SES students showed a preference for the contextualized manner of many CMP problems, but failed to see the mathematical ideas connecting various problems; higher-SES students had more success in pulling out the mathematical ideas from contextualized problems. Girls of both levels were more diligent than boys at completing assignments. The amount of effort for higher-SES males and females, and lower-SES males, correlated with quiz and test results; for lower-SES girls though, despite consistent effort most did not do well on assessments.

Malloy, Carol and William Malloy. (1998). "Issues of Culture in Mathematics Teaching and Learning." The Urban Review, Vol. 30, No. 3, 245-257.

Traditionally students have been expected to adapt to the dominant culture of classrooms in order to be academically successful. Reforms in mathematics have introduced inquiry-based learning, real-world problems, cooperative groups, and multicultural materials; yet culturally based pedagogy is still largely absent. Educators must be aware of the cultural learning styles of the children in their classrooms and tailor the teaching of mathematics to such styles. For example, research on the learning styles of African-American children has shown a preference for improvisational and intuitive thinking, informal class discussion, group achievement, extrinsic motivation, and a focus on the whole. This, combined with the shifts found in reform math classrooms, will enrich learning for all students.

Nelson-Barber, Sharon and Elise Trumbell Estrin. (1995). Culturally Responsive Mathematics and Science Education for Native Students. San Francisco, CA: WestEd. To order call: (415) 565-3044.

This paper examines the current math and science reforms in terms of how they meet the needs of American Indian and Alaskan Native students. It argues that the constructivist pedagogy of reform math and science curricula must be informed by a sociocultural perspective that incorporates social and cultural systems as they relate to students' learning. The authors compare a Western approach to education and show how this directly conflicts with Native educational practices.

Tartre. Lindsay. (1990). "Spatial Skills, Gender, and Mathematics." in Elizabeth Fennema and Gilah Leder (Eds.), Mathematics and Gender. New York: Teachers College Press.

The author addresses the long-contended link between spatial skills and math achievement by looking at the do mains of spatial visualization (mentally moving an object) and spatial orientation (understanding a change in perspective while viewing an object). Low spatial orientation (SO) female high school students showed substantially lower achievement than low-SO males and high-SO males and females. 80% of low-SO males who received a hint on how to solve the problem found the right answer; for low-SO females only 23% who received the hint answered correctly. The low-SO group of males had the highest mean of all groups for correct answers to visually presented problems. The author's conclusion is that higher spatial skills for males did not contribute to better achievement, but this pattern did hold more true for female students.

Webb, Noreen M. (1984). "Sex Difference in Interaction and Achievement in Cooperative Small Groups." Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 36 (No. 1), 33-44.

In analyzing interactions in cooperative small groups from a sample of seventy-seven junior high students, researchers found that females and males displayed similar patterns of interaction and achievement in groups with equal numbers of both sexes. In groups with more females than males, females asked the male student for help almost twice as often as they asked other females in the group. Male students tended to respond more to other males' request for help than to females' requests, particularly in groups with a gender imbalance. In majority-female and majority-male groups, males showed higher achievement than females did. The author's conclusion is that in coed cooperative groups girls benefit most when there is an equal number of males and females.

Willis, Sue. (1995). "Mathematics: From Constructing Privilege to Deconstructing Myths." In Jane Gaskell and John Willinsky (Eds.), Gender In/forms Curriculum: From Enrichment to Transformation. New York: Teachers College Press.

Some of the reasons for girls' lower confidence and interest in mathematics are discussed, such as girls being discouraged from risk taking, biased curriculum, and girls receiving a larger percent of criticism relating to their intellectual ability than boys do. After critiquing much of the biased mathematics curricula, the author launches into a discussion on the elements of a gender-inclusive curriculum. This kind of curriculum encourages students to share their mathematical thinking, work together in cooperative groups, take responsibility for their own learning, and go more in depth with problem solving.

Wilkinson, Louise Cherry, Janet Lindow, and Chi-Pang Chang. (1985). "Sex Differences and Sex Segregation in Students' Small-Group Communication." In Louise Wilkinson and Cora Marrett (Eds.), Gender Influences in Classroom Interaction. Wisconsin: Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System.

This sample of second- and third-grade coed small groups showed that boys' answers prevailed more often than girls' answers, even though both sexes ranked similarly in math achievement. Boys made more requests for action and information to other boys than to girls, while girls made an equal number of requests to both sexes.